Introduction

Cultivated peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important oil, food, and feed crop worldwide. In 2020, 53.64 million metric tons of peanut were produced on 31.57 million hectares worldwide (FAOSTAT, 2022). Peanut is grown mostly in tropical regions with Asia and Africa accounting for over 90% of world production (FAOSTAT, 2022). In Ghana, peanut remains the most important grain legume in terms of area under cultivation and annual production. Ghana produced 521,000 metric tons in 2018 on 320,000 hectares placing the country fifth in Africa for peanut cultivation (SRID-MoFA, 2019). The bulk of Ghana peanut production occurs in the Guinea and Sudan Savannah agro-ecologies where more than 90% of farming households are estimated to farm approximately 0.5 ha (Tsigbey et al., 2003). For these households, peanut significantly contributes to their livelihoods as a cash crop and relatively inexpensive highly nutritious food (Asibuo et al., 2008; Janila et al., 2013; Kleih et al., 2020).

Economically, Ghana peanut production is considered profitable with all the value chain actors reporting a net positive operating profit (Kleih et al., 2020). In 2018, peanut contributed 4.3% of the agricultural sector GDP which translated to 0.7% of the Ghana national GDP (Kleih et al., 2020). Despite its importance, Ghana peanut yields are often low in part to the negative impacts of arthropods, diseases, nematodes, and weeds (Abudulai et al., 2007; Dzomeku et al., 2009; Nutsugah et al., 2007; Umeh et al., 2002; Walker et al., 2014). Yield losses can approach 70% in West Africa when effective management for pests is not achieved (Ajeigbe et al., 2014; Nutsugah et al., 2007; Shokes and Culbreath, 1997; Subrahmaniyan et al., 2002; Waliyar et al., 2000). Monocotyledonous weeds including annual and perennial grasses and sedges as well as dicotyledonous weeds are prevalent in peanuts and can cause yield loss of between 50% and 80% in West Africa (Akobundu, 1987; Dzomeku et al., 2009). Peanut is very susceptible to early season weed interference because of their slow initial growth characteristics that allow many weed species to grow above the peanut canopy (Akobundu, 1987: Subrahmaniyan et al., 2002). Other important limitations in peanut cultivation are the effects of prolonged droughts, soil fertility management, pre-and post-harvest factors that predispose the crop to mycotoxins, limited access to improved cultivars, and wide plant spacings which affects optimum plant population (Naab et al., 2004 2005; Njorogae, 2018; Sugri et al., 2017).

Peanut is grown in all the agro-ecologies of Ghana except the Evergreen Forest and Coastal Savanna Zone. However, over 90% of cultivation is concentrated in the northern region of the country which is primarily the drier areas with Savanna and transitional-Savanna conditions. Rainfall in the Savanna agroecology is unimodal and usually begins in April or early May and ends in October with total precipitation between 900 to 1,100 mm, followed by a dry season. Land in this area is generally flat with some low-lying areas. Soils are shallow with low fertility, especially nitrogen (N) and organic matter. In contrast, annual rainfall of up to 1,300 mm has been recorded in the transitional zone and the area has a bi-modal rainfall pattern. Soils in this zone are deep and have higher fertility.

In southern Ghana, there is a bi-modal rainy season: April through June (i.e., major season) and September through November (minor season). The highest amount of rainfall is recorded in June. Generally, regions in southern Ghana experience high amounts of rainfall ranging from 1,400 to 1,600 mm annually. However, areas such as the eastern parts of Lake Volta and southwestern parts of Kumasi receive rainfall up to 2,000 mm every year. Soils in the forest zone are deep, easily tilled and offer very little restrictions to root growth. Soils are low in total N, low plant available phosphorus (P), and are acidic (pH 5.2-6.0).

Improved technologies for peanut production have been tested in Ghana for increased yield, which are suitable for many agricultural production areas in West Africa (Agbetiameh et al., 2020, Abudulai et al., 2018 2020; Ortega-Beltran and Bandyopadhyay, 2021). These technologies when applied have increased peanut yield in Ghana and most parts of West Africa and have increased financial returns and food security. These include: i) release of elite high yielding and early maturity peanut cultivars ii) development of Rhizobium inoculant specific for biological nitrogen fixation in peanut; iii) development of good agronomic practices such as planting time, plant spacing, crop rotation, and fertilizer dose to maximize yield; iv) development of integrated management of arthropods, nematodes, pathogens, and weeds to maximize yield; v) development special fertilizer formulations suitable for legume production; and vi) validation of technologies on good harvesting, drying, storage, shelling, and processing practices to reduce postharvest losses and risk of aflatoxin contamination. More recently, the biological control agent marketed as Aflasafe® (Anonymous, 2023a) has become available in Ghana and other countries in sub-Saharan Africa to reduce aflatoxin contamination in corn (Zea mays L.), peanut, and sorghum (Sorghun bicolor Moench.) (Agbetiameh et al., 2020; Senghor et al., 2020 2021). Atoxigenic strains of Aspergillus flavus are present in Aflasafe® that effectively compete with native strains that produce the toxin (Agbetiameh et al., 2020; Senghor et al., 2020 2021). However, this approach to aflatoxin mitigation has limited commercial acceptance in peanut. Collectively, these technologies and related information are often discussed in isolation of one another, and are presented in separate extension materials/media such as peer-reviewed publications, extension guides and manual, conference proceedings, or media forms such as radio.

To date, dissemination of these technologies has largely been carried out and promoted via on-farm demonstrations, farmer field schools, face-to-face trainings, and formal meetings. A major challenge with these extension approaches is limited interaction. One example of an approach to characterizing and disseminating information on complex interactions of production and pest management practices is the Peanut Rx tool developed for peanut in the southeastern US (Anonymous, 2022). This tool is designed to assist farmers and their advisors in characterizing risk of tomato spotted wilt (tospovirus, Bunyaviridae) transmitted by thrips (Frankliniella fusca Pergande, F. occidentalis Hinds) and other economically-important pathogens in peanut using combinations of variety selection, cultural practices, and pesticides. A point system was developed based on empirical data and expert opinion to characterize risk. The risk tool is modified on a frequent basis as new cultivars are released and when new knowledge on effectiveness of production and pest management practices become available. In this paper, we illustrate how a MS Excel based peanut risk management tool was developed for use by extension service providers in Ghana to advise farmers on recommended production practices that can be combined to minimize risk to yield reduction and aflatoxin contamination at an affordable cost. The tool was developed for peanut production areas in northern and southern Ghana and was adapted from a similar tool created for peanut farmers in North Carolina (USA) and other countries (Jordan et al., 2020; Jordan et al., 2022a 2022b). The latest version of the tool can be accessed at: https://cropmanagement.cals.ncsu.edu/risk-tools/peanut.html. Similar to the Peanut Rx platform, this tool is not static and will be modified by experts over time based on release of improved varieties and information from both empirical and observational data relative to new practices or refinement of current practices.

Development of a Peanut Risk Management Tool for Ghana

Scoring of Yield Reduction and Aflatoxin Contamination Practices

Risks to yield

Crop management practices

Planting peanut soon after the onset of rains is reported to lead to increased biomass and pod yield, irrespective of the variety planted in Ghana (Naab et al., 2005). In general, the forecasted rainfall onset dates for the northern and transitional zone in Ghana is April and that of the southern zone is March of each year (Amekudzi et al., 2015; Gbangou et al., 2019). This information from historical data sets guided the selection of optimum planting dates for peanut production zones in northern and southern Ghana used in the risk tool. However, for early maturing varieties (e.g., Sarinut 2), the reduced effect of delayed planting on biomass and pod yield was factored into the calibration of the risk tool for northern Ghana. Seven planting date periods were identified and their effects on yield in northern Ghana were assigned risk scores (Table 1). It should be noted that some periods were assigned the same risk scores. Among the dates selected, planting peanut between May 15 and 31 was assigned the lowest score while planting after July 15 had the highest risk score. The risk scores for planting dates outside May 15 to 31 window but before June 30 were lower (below 30 points) while plantings occurring after July 1 or before April 30 had higher risk scores (above 80 points). For southern Ghana, three planting date periods were identified and their effects on yield reduction were scored for the minor season. Peanut planted between August 15 and 31 was assigned a low risk score of 35 points while those planted after September 15 had higher risk score. In the major season, six planting date periods were identified. The planting time with the lowest risk score was April 1-14 while peanut planted after May 15 had the highest risk score. The optimum planting time for peanut was March 15 – April 30 (Table 2).

Table 1

Risk to yield and aflatoxin contamination under different crop management practices in peanut production in northern Ghana.^a

Table 2

Risk to yield and aflatoxin contamination under different crop management practices in peanut cultivation in Southern Ghana^a.

The effect of plant population on yield reduction was assessed at 5 levels (e.g., broadcasting and planting in rows with plants spaced 10, 15, 20, and 25 cm apart for northern Ghana (Table 1). Planting at a 10-cm plant spacing had the lowest risk score of 5 points. Fields establishment by broadcasting were assigned the highest risk score of 160 (Table 1). In contrast, the effect of plant population on yield was assessed at three levels for both the minor and major seasons in southern Ghana. In both seasons, a plant spacing of 10 cm had the lowest risk scores while increasing the intra-row spacing to 20 cm was assigned the highest risk score. In general, the lowest and highest risk scores were 5 and 30 points, respectively for the major season while that of the minor season were 15 and 80 points, respectively (Table 2). These risk scores for spacing were selected based on research conducted in Ghana and elsewhere showing yield components (e.g., number and weight of pods per plant) increases with increasing plant density (Abdul Rahman et al., 2020; Bihter et al., 2016; Kombiok, 2013; Konlan et al., 2013). Plant density can be increased by either reducing the intra row spacing up to 10cm (Bihter et al., 2016) or reducing the inter row spacing up to 35 cm (Kombiok, 2013).

In both northern and southern Ghana, the effect of rhizobium inoculant was assessed at two levels (e.g., present or absent). The use of rhizobium inoculant was assigned the lowest score while the highest score was assigned to the absence of rhizobium inoculant (Tables 1 and 2). Low soil fertility and continuous cropping limit peanut yields on farmers’ fields. To mitigate this challenge, the use of the plant systems’ internal resources such as biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) has been identified as an efficient method of enhancing the crop productivity (Asante et al., 2020). Studies conducted in Ghana indicate that the use of rhizobium inoculants (Bradyrhizobium yuanmingense) significantly increases yield. Combining rhizobium inoculants with phosphprus (P) fertilizers further increases yields (Asante et al., 2020; Mintah et al., 2020; Naabe et al., 2021).

Five improved peanut varieties and a local variety (Shitouqui) were selected and incorporated into the northern Ghana risk tool. The highest risk score of 70 points was assigned to Shitouqui (a pest and disease susceptible variety) while cultivars resistant to leaf spot (LSR) and groundnut rosette diseases (GRDR) were assigned the lowest score (Table 1). In southern Ghana, three improved peanut varieties which are mostly cultivated in the minor season were scored. The variety Yenyawoso (GRD resistant) was assigned the lowest score while Shitouqui and Konkoma (disease susceptible varieties) had the highest risk for yield reduction. For the major season, six improved peanut varieties were scored for their risk to yield reductions. Of these, Obolo (a leaf spot resistant variety) and Otuhia (leaf spot and peanut rosette disease resistant) were assigned the lowest score (e.g., 5 points) while Shitouqui and Konkoma (disease susceptible varieties) were assigned the highest risk score (e.g., 50 points) (Table 2). These improved varieties were scored based on their susceptibility to key biotic stresses in peanut production (e.g., aphids and leaf spot and rosette diseases). This was because the seed (variety) used for production will determine the yield that will be obtained at the end of the season (Ajeigbe et al., 2015).

Field management practices

Field management practices such as crop rotation, fertilizer application, calciprill (37% Ca; 0.6% Mg; 52%; 2 – 6 mm granule size; 1.2 kg/l bulk density; Distributed by Demeter Ghana Ltd., Labone, Accra) application, field soil fertility status, and tillage practices were scored for their risk to yield reduction. Planting peanut after a cereal crop (corn, sorghum) was assigned the lowest score, while the highest was assigned to continuous cropping of peanut for both northern and southern Ghana (Tables 3 and 4). Continuously cropping peanut can lead to nutrient depletion, growth inhibition, and yield decline because of changes in soil microbial structure and potential functions as well as increases in the relative abundance of pathogenic microorganisms such as Fusarium and Athelia (Chen et al., 2012, 2014; Li et al., 2022). In contrast, rotating peanut with other crops reduces the potential of soil-borne pathogens, thus increasing the peanut yield and quality (Li et al., 2022). The lowest scores were assigned to rotation schemes that had peanut planted after two consecutive cereal seasons.

The 250 kg/ha fertilizer rate (0% N, 18% P₂O₅, 13% K₂O, 29% CaO) (Yara Legume Fertilizer, Accra, Ghana) was assigned the lowest risk score, while not applying fertilizer was given the highest score in northern Ghana. In general, a decrease in fertilizer application from 250 kg/ha increased the risk score. Similary, the Calciprill application was assigned the lowest risk score while not applying it received the highest score (Table 3). For southern Ghana, three fertilizer rates and not applying fertilizer were scored. For both the minor and major season, the lowest risk points were assigned to 150 kg/ha Yara legume and the highest to not applying fertilizer. For Calciprill, including an application was assigned the lowest risk score while not using Calciprill had the highest risk score in both cropping seasons (Table 4). Many studies indicate that peanut responds positively to high P fertilizers and lower amounts of N and potassium (K); only low starter doses of N may be needed to stimulate initial plant growth before nodule formation (Basu et al., 2008; Hossain and Hamid, 2007). Hence, lower risk scores were assigned as fertilizer rate increased. Using Calciprill in peanut production is confirmed to improve peanut growth and yield (Adhikari et al., 2003; Wiatrak et al., 2006; Yadav et al., 2015).

Table 3

Risk to yield and aflatoxin under different field management practices in peanut production in northern Ghana.

Table 4

Risk to yield reduction and aflatoxin contamination under different field management practices in peanut cultivation in southern Ghana.

In northern Ghana, risk was assigned to three soil fertility levels; low, moderate, and high. The highest risk score was assigned to low fertility soils while the lowest score was assigned to fields with high fertility status. Soil with 5.6 to 6.9 pH were given the lowest risk score of 5 points while those with pH less than 4.4 or greater than 7.0 were assigned the highest risk scores of 100 points. Risk points for tillage were low for ploughed and harrowed fields and high for those planted on flat beds (Table 3). For the minor and major season in southern Ghana, the lowest risk to yield reduction was assigned to high soil fertility and the highest to low fertility status fields. Fields with soil pH of 5.6 to 6.9 were assigned the lowest score while those with pH less than 4.4 or greater than 7.0 were assigned the highest. Two tillage methods (flat beds and ploughing and harrowing) were assessed risk to yield reduction. Risk scores were highest for flat beds (i.e., unploughed fields) and lowest for ploughing and harrowing fields, in both minor and major seasons (Table 4).

Generally, peanut grows best in deep well-drained sandy loam or in sandy clay loam soils with pH from 6.5-7.0 and high fertility (Ajeigbea et al., 2015). Low soil pH reduces growth, nutrient absorption, nodulation, and yield. It is also associated with aluminum (Al) and manganese (Mn) toxicities as well as deficiencies of calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), molybdenum (Mo), and P deficiencies (Van Rossum et al., 1994). Based on literature available on the effects of low soil fertility and pH on peanut yield, higher risk scores were assigned to poor, acidic, or alkaline soils.

Harvest

In northern Ghana, the risk to yield reduction relative to digging timing was scored for farmers who harvest before, at, and after the time of the optimum digging (maturity). The risk score was lowest for digging at the optimum time (5 points) and highest for digging 21 days earlier (100 points). Risk scores for farmers who delayed digging by 21 days was also high (70 points) (Table 5). In the south, the lowest score was assigned to digging at the optimum time while digging 15 days late (for minor season) or 15 days early (for major season) was assigned the highest risk score. Digging 7 days early or late from optimal also increased the risk to yield reduction (Table 6). The effect of digging time on peanut yield varies with the cultivar (Knauft et al., 1986; (Oakes et al., 2020). Decreases in yield due to delayed digging are often attributed to foliar diseases such as leaf spot (Anco et al., 2020). For the risk management tool, digging earlier than physiological maturity was assigned higher yield reduction risk scores because of the reduced quantity of mature pods. Similarly, delayed digging was assigned higher risk scores because some pods might remain in the soil or sprout, thus affecting the peanut quantity.

Table 5

Risk to yield and aflatoxin contamination at different digging times in peanut cultivation in northern Ghana.

Table 6

Risk to yield and aflatoxin contamination under different digging times in peanut cultivation in southern Ghana.

Farmers in Ghana use several approaches to determine when to dig peanut. In some instances, farmers dig peanut when plants begin defoliation, most often due to leaf spot disease (Asiedu et al., 2014). In other instances, farmers shell pods to determine kernel maturity (Asiedu et al., 2014). Their decision is also based on availability of labor to dig and remove pods from plants. In the risk tool, optimum maturity is based on pod mesocarp color which can be determined using the shell out method or scraping pods with a knife. One goal of extension professionals in Ghana is to inform more farmers on how to determine optimum maturity for harvest.

Pest management

Aphids (Aphis craccivora Kock), birds, early leaf spot [caused by Passalora arachidicola (Hori) U. Braun 1999 (syn. Cercospora arachidicola Hori 1917], late leaf spot [caused by Nothopassalora personata (Berk. & M. A. Curtis) U. Braun, C. Nakash, Videira & Crous 2017 (syn. Cercosporidium personatum (Berk. & Curt.) Deighton 1967], rodents, and weeds were the pests considered under this category. A risk score of 5 was assigned for peanuts protected from aphid while 80 points was assigned for unprotected in northern Ghana (Table 7). Similar values were used for the two southern Ghanaseasons . (Table 8). Aphid infestation threatens profitable peanut production in all Ghana production zones. Aphid populations in peanut fields is influenced by intra-plant spacings with closer spacings reported to reduce infestation levels and vice versa (A’Brook. 1968; Farrell, 1976). Increases in aphid populations are also impacted by abiotic factors (Jasrotia et al., 2016). The pest consequently affects peanut yields by transmitting peanut rosette disease virus (Javed et al., 2014; Naidu et al., 1999). The disease is endemic to peanut growing areas of Sub-Saharan Africa and it causes annual yield loss worth over US$150 million (Naidu et al., 1999). Protecting peanut from aphids mitigates yield losses and was therefore assigned the lowest risk score while not controlling aphids was assigned a higher risk score.

Table 7

Risk to yield and aflatoxin contamination under different pest and disease management practices in peanut production in northern Ghana.

Table 8

Risk to peanut yield and aflatoxin contamination under different pest and disease management practices in peanut cultivation in southern Ghana.

For birds, the lowest risk score was assigned to protected peanut while unprotected was assigned the highest risk score in the tools developed for northern and southern Ghana (Tables 7 and 8). Crop depredation by birds is a serious problem in the cultivation of sorghum, rice (Oryza sativa L.), millet [Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn], and peanut although the magnitude of yield loss is unknown (Kale et al., 2012, 2014; Soundararajan et al., 2021). Many scaring methods are used to reduce bird damage and loss (Kale et al., 2014).

The risk management tools for northern and southern Ghana had low risk points for fields protected from leaf spot diseases by applying 3 fungicide sprays while the unprotected peanut had the highest score (Tables 7 and 8). The risk increased as the number fungicide sprays was reduced. Early leaf spot and late leaf spot diseases are estimated to cause annual peanut yield losses of approximately 19% in Africa (Babu et al., 1995). Culbreath et al. (2006) showed that full season application of fungicides to manage leaf spot diseases requires up to seven sprays. In the Ghana risk management tool, a maximum of three sprays were considered adequate to protect the crop from these diseases and was assigned the lowest risk score. This was based on field trials conducted in Ghana, Benin, and Niger that demonstrated two or three fungicide applications were enough to significantly increase pod yields (Arthur et al., 2022; Naab et al., 2005; Waliyar et al., 2000).

Farmers perceive rodents as a major pest and losses have been estimated at 13% (Brown et al., 2008). Risk scores for peanut protected from rodents were therefore low compared to the unprotected peanuts in the tools for the two production zones (e.g., north and south) (Tables 7 and 8). For rodent management, critical stages that require protection include germination, pod formation, and pod maturity (Butani et al., 2006).

Weed control and its effect on yield reduction was scored at different levels in the northern and southern Ghana risk management tools (Tables 7 and 8). The lowest score was assigned to applying preemergence herbicide followed by a single hand weeding while the highest score was assigned to single hand weeding during the season. Risk scores for other weed management practices and combinations were generally below 25 points for both locations. This was based on studies (Abudulai et al., 2018; Arthur et al., 2022; Dzomeku et al., 2019; Wilfred et al., 2020) that determined two hand weedings or applying pendimethalin preemergence herbicide followed by one hand weeding in peanut production results in low weed density and consequently increases yield. Risk scores were, however, higher for weedy fields. Weeding more than twice affects pegging since the third hand weeding interferes with the pegging. It is recommended that weeds should be pulled out by hand if peanut fields are weedy at pegging. Alternatively, selective herbicides can be used for weed control at that stage.

Aflatoxin contamination scores

Drying and storage practices

The storage practices scored for their effect on aflatoxin contamination were storage moisture, method, and temperature. Risk scores were lowest for peanut stored at moisture content lower than 10%, in sealed bags and at temperatures lower than 28 C. The scores were highest for those stored at a moisture content of 15% or higher, using traditional storage methods and at temperatures higher than 32 C (Table 9 and 10). Kernels that have a moisture content of 10% or above are likely to have higher levels of aflatoxins. Hence, drying to a moisture content below 10% for unshelled and 7% for shelled peanut is key to reducing aflatoxin contamination (Torres et al., 2014). Proper drying must be accompanied by before-storage sorting to remove contaminated peanuts (Cole et al., 1985). Also, storage temperature of 25 – 27 C is recommended to minimize aflatoxin contamination (Torres et al., 2014). These factors were considered in assigning minimum and maximum risk scores. Adudulai et al., 2020 and Appaw et al. (2020) demonstrated reductions in aflatoxin contamination when peanut was dried on tarpaulin compared with drying on the ground or cement floor.

Table 9

Risk to aflatoxin contamination under different peanut storage practices in northern Ghana.

Interactive interface

Effective dissemination of agricultural technologies by extension service providers is key to helping smallholder farmers to address the many challenges of agricultural production (Antwi-Agyei and Stinger, 2021; Asiedu-Darko, 2013). The risk management tool contributes to effective extension delivery to peanut farmers by using an interactive interface where extension advisors can select a set of production practices and assess their effect on yield reduction and aflatoxin pictorially as red, yellow or green dots. For example, the potential risk to yield reduction and aflatoxin contamination is high when a farmer adopts non-recommended practices such as late planting, low plant population, no BNF inoculant, using unimproved varieties (pest and disease susceptible), no calcium applied, no aphid protection, no fertilization, late digging and drying on the ground. This is pictorially displayed in the risk tool by red dots. The tool also estimates the cost associated with the selected practices (Figure 1). A farmer may, however, minimize risk by planting on-time (e.g., in May), use BNF inoculant to treat seeds, selecting an improved variety (e.g., Sarinut 1, Sarinut 2 or Nkatiesari), adding calcium fertilizer, managing aphids by applying 3 rounds of insecticide sprays, digging the peanut at optimum maturity and drying the harvested pods on tarpaulin (Figure 2). Moderate risk can be targeted by farmers who cannot afford the cost associated with adopting all of the most effective practices but select at least one (Figure 3).

Interface displaying high risk to aflatoxin and yield when peanut production practices are varied on the risk management tool.

Interface displaying low risk to aflatoxin and yield when peanut production practices are varied on the risk management tool.

Interface displaying moderate risk to aflatoxin and yield when peanut production practices are varied on the risk management tool.

Delivery of extension service to farmers can be achieved through field demonstrations, meetings/trainings, the use of printed materials (e.g., manuals, leaflets, and pamphlets) or a combination of more than one approach (Kassem, 2014; Maoba, 2016). The use of these extension delivery approaches has mostly focused on delivering knowledge/skills on a specific technology. The interactive interface of the risk management tool for peanut overcomes the limitation of the current extension delivery system by equipping users with up-to-date information on production practices that farmers can employ to maximize profits based on resources available to the farmer. For instance, a farmer who is producing to meet a specific market demand can manipulate time of planting and other production practices until the output displayed satisfies the requirements of their target market. Also, the use of training and demonstration have been identified as effective methods of disseminating best-bet production packages to farmers (Maoba, 2016). The peanut risk management tool can be an important resource in selecting information that can be incorporated into curricula to train farmers or select technologies for field demonstrations with farmers.

The use of information communication technology (ICT)-based tools [e.g., CRS SMART Skills, Farmbook (CSSF), Digital Green (DG)] in extension service delivery is promoted by some organizations across Africa (Tata and McNamara, 2018). This approach to extension has increased the efficiency with which extension officers carry out their work. Extension workers who use ICT-based tools are able to work with more farmer groups and their capacities are built to deliver the required information needed by farmers to enhance their productivity (Tata and McNamara, 2016). The risk management tool will therefore form part or complement existing ICT tools used to improve extension service delivery, specifically in the area of production and aflatoxin management. This tool, however, has the added advantage of being an advisory tool and a decision-making tool for farmers and potential investors. A farmer can plan ahead for an upcoming crop season and decide on the inputs they need as well as determine the cost of production for the season. Similarly, an investor can use the tool to decide on whether to fund the production of a client after getting information on the combinations of production practices that the client will be adopting for the season. Since the tool was developed for peanut production zones in Ghana, it makes it easy for a farmer or investor to select production sites with a minimal risk to yield and aflatoxin contamination.

Conclusion

Access to quality information to guide farmers in decision-making is key to producing quality peanut in sufficient quantities needed by consumers in Ghana. Most of the information needed to guide decision making are scattered in extension materials and refereed publications and never available in an integrated form on a single platform. As a result, it is very difficult for farmers to make informed decisions on best-bet production practices that can be combined to maximize yield and financial returns. The peanut risk management tool bridges that gap in extension delivery by combining all available technologies in peanut cultivation from literature and expert opinion into a single digital platform. This will assist farmers and persons who intend to invest in peanut production in Ghana to identify the best set of production practices that will likely deliver the desired outcome in terms of reduced yield loss and aflatoxin contamination. The tool will also assist researchers to identify knowledge gaps in peanut production as well as the development of interventions to address such gaps. It can be adopted as a teaching aid for the training of agricultural science students.

This research was supported by the North Carolina Agricultural Foundation and the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) under the terms of the Cooperative Agreement No. 7200AA 18CA00003 to the University of Georgia as management entity for USAID Feed the Future Innovation Lab for Peanut (2018-2028). The opinions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

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