Peanut (Arachis hypogaea L.) is an important component of diets in developing countries, including Ghana. Peanut provides high-quality cooking oil, and is a critical source of protein for both humans and livestock. Peanut also provides foreign exchange through the export of kernels and peanut oil cake. With market demand of peanut expected to increase due to growing population and urbanization, African countries have the potential of increasing peanut output and consumption, and possibly export to neighboring countries (FAO, 2002).

A major constraint to peanut production and export is aflatoxin contamination (Otsuki et al., 2001). Aflatoxins are metabolites produced mainly by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus (CAST, 2003). Aflatoxin is among the most toxic mycotoxins in nature and is a major hazard to human and animal health. Aflatoxin causes hepatocellular carcinoma, one of the most common cancers in tropical countries (Enomoto and Saito, 1972; Oyelami et al., 1997; Ibeh et al., 1994; Waliyar, 2002). Studies in Africa (Njapu et al, 1998; Lötter and Kröhm, 1988; Munimbazi and Bullerman, 1996) have reported high frequencies of liver cancer compared with Western countries. Presence of aflatoxin in peanut and peanut-based products contribute to cancer and other health problems (Groopman et al, 1996; Wogan, 1992). High temperature and humidity common to tropical regions contribute to elevated levels of aflatoxin (Basu, 2002).

Programs have been implemented to educate producers, processors and consumers of peanuts on proper handling and storage to minimize aflatoxin contamination in peanut. Proper post-harvest and storage practices can greatly reduce aflatoxin contamination (Riley and Norred, 1999). Adequate drying of peanut after harvest to reduce moisture levels to below 12%; removing broken and discolored kernels; storage in a dry clean area, and storage on pallets to allow air to circulate through the peanut to reduce aflatoxin development and subsequent contamination, may be effective to reduce it to an acceptable level. Pre- or post-harvest prevention of fungal contamination and proliferation is the preferred strategy for minimizing aflatoxin in peanut (Riley and Norred, 1999).

A number of methods have been suggested for the reduction of aflatoxin in peanut. Among them are heat, mechanical, electronic and hand picking, chemical, density and flotation techniques, and manual sorting. Heat treatment is not a useful method for the reduction of aflatoxin because the temperature required to destroy aflatoxin is 270°C which may reduce peanut quality (AOC International, 1995; Galvez et al., 2003). Chlorinating agents (hydrogen hypochlorite, gaseous chlorine), oxidizing agents (hydrogen peroxide, ozone, sodium bisulfite), and/or hydrochloric agents (acids, alkalis, ammonia) (Galvez et al., 2003) can be used to partially destroy aflatoxin. However, these materials may not be available and are difficult to apply under on-farm conditions. Electronic color sorting and hand picking are widely used to separate aflatoxin contaminated kernels from sound kernels. Electronic color sorting is only 72% efficient while hand picking, although more selective, is impractical for large quantities of peanut (Dickens and Whitaker, 1975). Density based separation schemes are theoretically feasible, but the loss of kernels with such methods is high and the level of efficiency achieved with this method is highly variable (Gnanasekharan and Chinnan 1989; Henderson et al., 1989).

A major problem in subsistence level economies, like Ghana, is that a large portion of the food produced is consumed with little or no processing outside the home. Therefore, given the nature of aflatoxin, the efficiency of the methods used to reduce it and the associated costs of the aflatoxin reduction techniques, it is recommended that individuals, producers, marketers, and consumers in the marketing chain increase their awareness of the hazards associated with the consumption of aflatoxin contaminated peanut, and use individual, hygienic and manual techniques of sorting before consumption to reduce the levels of aflatoxin-ingested peanut.

To attain a given level of sorting by consumers of peanut, it is imperative to understand the factors influencing market participants' decision to sort peanut. The main objective of this study is to determine the level of awareness of the aflatoxin problem among various stakeholders in the peanut industry in Ghana, and to determine the factors influencing market participants to sort their peanut before consumption or converting into paste.

A survey instrument with questions on peanut production systems, consumption patterns, market participants' awareness of mycotoxins and health effects of aflatoxin was administered to respondents in three broad zones in Ghana. Socio-economic and demographic data on household characteristics were also collected.

The Northern, Upper East and Upper West Regions made up of Bawku East, Bawku West, Lawra, Savelugu-Nanton, Tamale and West Mamprusi Districts constituted the Northern Zone and considered to be the high production zone. The Middle Zone (medium production zone) comprised of Brong Ahafo and Ashanti Regions with the following districts: Techiman, Wenchi, Ejisu-Juaben, Ejura-Sekyedumase, Ahafo Ano South, Kumasi Metropolitan Area and Atwima Districts. The Eastern Region, Greater Accra Region, Central, and Volta Regions with the following districts constituted the Southern Zone: Koforidua, Kwahu South, Tema, Dangbe West, Accra Metropolitan Area, Abora Asebu, Mfantsiman, Awutu Efutu-Senya, Nkwanta, Ho, Hohoe, Kpando, Adidome, Ketu, Sogakope and Akatsi Districts. The Southern Zone was considered the low production zone.

The respondents included the various stakeholders involved in the peanut industry in Ghana and included peanut farmers, processors, feed millers, poultry farmers (live stockers), retailers, and consumers. Almost all members of the sample produce peanut, but the participants interviewed declared whether they were producers, processors, millers, or consumers. We interviewed 332 farmers, 727 consumers, 372 retailers, 400 processors, 18 millers and 135 poultry farmers between the months of March to September 2001.

The survey data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Scientist (SPSS) software and Statistical Analysis System Software (SAS Institute, Cary, NC). Both national and zonal analyses were conducted. The national analysis was performed on all six categories of stakeholders that are farmers, processors, feed millers, poultry farmers, retailers and consumers. In the zonal analysis, data from only farmers, processors, retailers and consumers were included. Poultry farmers and feed millers were not incorporated because they were not encountered in the northern zone.

The analysis was in two parts, (1) the overall national analysis over the various categories of stakeholders and (2) the restricted zonal analysis over the same categories of stakeholders. Analytical tools included: (a) descriptive statistics, including both qualitative and quantitative analyses and (b) logistic regression analysis.

Peanut is produced in all regions of Ghana, but is concentrated mainly in the north and central regions. Peanut competes well for land and generates net income, second only to yams. The major production constraint faced by farmers is the availability of capital for investment and the problems associated with pests and diseases.

In spite of the high daily consumption of peanut, many people are not aware that peanut that is not properly stored can be contaminated with aflatoxin produced by Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus which are highly toxic and may cause cancer of the liver and other health problems (Waliyar, 2002). The study showed up to 90% of farmers, processors and consumers are not aware of aflatoxin. Jolly et al. (2006) found that 92.3% of farmers in the Ejura district in the Ashanti region had never heard of the word “aflatoxin” but 76.8% said they sorted their peanut and 90% said they were able to identify unwholesome peanut and grains. The study found that most of those who know about aflatoxin (50.9%) got their information from attending workshops organized by the Ministry of Food and Agriculture.

Most participants indicate that they know how to identify poor quality peanut. The most common method used is visual and that is when the nuts are already black with fungus present which many have levels of aflatoxin higher than that recommended as safe for human or animal consumption.

There are a number of factors influencing the sorting of nuts before consumption, among those, are education, age, revenue from peanut and the form in which the peanut is consumed. Females are more likely to sort peanut before consumption than males. Gender roles influence household chores in Ghanaian society. Women are more likely to engage in food preparation and the safety aspects of food consumption (Danso et al., 2004). Lin (1995) found that those most concerned with food safety tended to be women, older, more educated, full-time homemakers, or have a member of their household in an at-risk group. Baker (2003) also indicated that women had the strongest reaction to low-visibility food safety risk. Older women who remained home are usually given specific tasks and included among those is the cleaning or sorting of produce for marketing and consumption. Hence it is expected that women would be more likely involved in sorting of peanut for consumption at the household level.

Two noted outcomes are illiterate farmers or those who attended primary school only are more likely to sort peanut before consumption, while processors, retailers and consumers, who have attained secondary and tertiary levels of education, are more likely to sort their peanut. This may be so since in a labor surplus economy like that of Ghana, farmers who are educated tend to be absentee farmers and are more likely to pay those who are less educated to sort peanut before consumption. Those men who are older and less educated remain home and are more likely to be involved in post-harvest activities such as sorting of peanut that require less physical exertion. One of the roles agriculture plays in Ghana is that of a safety net (Sarpong and Asuming-Brempong, 2004). As members of the extended family grow old or are threatened by economic deprivation, disability or social isolation, they are protected in times of crisis through making claims of assistance on kin. These individuals, who are usually less educated, trade their labor services for household support on the farm and in meal preparation. Livestock owners, retailers and consumers who know about health problems related to aflatoxin ingestion are more likely to sort their peanut before processing them into paste.

Those who are aware of the negative effects of consuming aflatoxin-contaminated peanut are more likely to sort their peanut. Appropriate policy formulation requires decision makers to stress the health awareness aspects of aflatoxin-contaminated peanut and emphasize the diffusion of information on the importance of the hygienic aspects of peanut sorting to reducing aflatoxin levels and to improve peanut quality. Education on peanut sorting and food safety issues related to consuming aflatoxin contaminated peanut should be directed to the entire household since everyone should be aware of the effects of aflatoxin-contaminated peanut at all levels of the marketing chain, the diffusion of information on the health benefits of reducing aflatoxin in peanut and grains should be emphasized.